Exosomes and cancer: from molecular mechanisms to clinical applications.

Exosomes are extracellular nanovesicles secreted from almost all types of normal and cancer cells. Collective evidence suggests that exosomes participate in cell-cell communication via transmitting their cargo, including nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites to recipient cells. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) play prominent roles in the regulation of molecular pathways in malignancies. Internalization of exosomes by tumor cells affects cellular pathways and several cancer hallmarks, including reprogramming of stromal cells, modulating immune responses, reconstructing extracellular matrix architecture, or even endowing tumor cells with drug features resistance. The unique biogenesis pathways of exosomes, their composition, low immunogenicity, and nontoxicity, together with their ability to target tumor cells, bring them up as an attractive vesicles for cancer therapy. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms of exosomes' participation in tumorigenesis will be critical for the next generation of cancer therapeutics. This review aims to summarize the exosomes' roles in different mechanisms underlying cancer progression for the rational design of tailored strategies against this illness. The present study also highlights the new findings on using these smart vesicles as therapeutic targets and potential biomarkers. Recent advances in exosome biology will open up new, more effective, less invasive, and more individualized clinical applications for treating cancer patients.