Emerging technologies for cardiac tissue engineering and artificial hearts.

Heart diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases, have brought heavy burden on society for their high morbidity and mortality. In clinical, heart transplantation is recognized as an effective strategy to rescue the lives of patients, while it may suffer from lack of donors and possible immune responses. In view of this, tremendous efforts have been devoted to developing alternative strategies to recover the function and promote the regeneration of cardiac tissues. As an emerging field blending cell biology and material science, tissue engineering technique allows the construction of biomimetic living complexes as organ substitutes for heart repair. In this review, we will present the recent progress in cardiac tissue engineering and artificial hearts. After introducing the critical elements in cardiac tissue engineering, we will present advanced fabrication methods to achieve scaffolds with desired micro/nanostructure design as well as the applications of these bioinspired scaffolds. We will also discuss the current dilemma and possible development direction from a biomedical perspective.