Pathogenesis of bovine H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b infection in macaques.

Since early 2022, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus infections have been reported in wild aquatic birds and poultry throughout the USA with spillover into several mammalian species. In March 2024, HPAIV H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b was first detected in dairy cows in Texas, USA, and continues to circulate on dairy farms in many states. Milk production and quality are diminished in infected dairy cows, with high virus titres in milk raising concerns of exposure to mammals including humans through consumption. Here we investigated routes of infection with bovine HPAIV H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b in cynomolgus macaques, a surrogate model for human infection. We show that intranasal or intratracheal inoculation of macaques could cause systemic infection resulting in mild and severe respiratory disease, respectively. By contrast, infection by the orogastric route resulted in limited infection and seroconversion of macaques that remained subclinical.