Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Challenges in Evaluating Emerging Battery Technologies: A Review.

As the demand for more efficient energy storage solutions grows, emerging battery chemistries are being developed to complement or potentially replace conventional lithium-ion technologies. This review explores the circular economy potential of sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), and aluminum (Al) battery systems as alternative post-lithium configurations. Through a comparative literature analysis, it identifies key barriers related to material complexity, recovery efficiency, and regulatory gaps, while highlighting opportunities for design improvements and policy alignment to enhance sustainability across battery life cycles. However, end-of-life (EoL) material recovery remains constrained by complex chemistries, low technology readiness levels, and fragmented regulatory frameworks. Embedding materials/battery design principles, transparent life cycle assessment (LCA) data (e.g., publishing LCAs in open repositories using a standard functional unit), and harmonized policy early could close material loops and transform the rising post-lithium battery stream into a circular-economy resource rather than a waste burden.